Executive Summary
Hyperscale data centers turned roughly 180–220 TWh of electricity into heat in 2025, most of it rejected to ambient air. In colder regions, that heat is now valuable: modern energy-efficient buildings still require 30–70 kWh/m² of space heating each year. At Energy Solutions, we benchmark real projects in Scandinavia, Central Europe, and North America where data center waste heat is piped into district heating networks and sold under long-term contracts.
- Liquid-cooled and high-efficiency air-cooled data centers can export 70–90% of consumed electricity as usable heat when connected to low-temperature district heating (55–75°C supply).
- 2026 benchmarks show delivered heat costs in the range of 12–30 EUR/MWh for heat network operators, typically undercutting gas boilers (35–55 EUR/MWh) and sometimes competing with large-scale heat pumps.
- For operators, heat offtake revenues add 3–8% to EBITDA for well-sited facilities, with typical contracts paying 3–9 EUR/MWh of exported heat plus avoided costs for dry coolers and chillers.
- At portfolio scale, Energy Solutions modeling indicates that by 2035, data center heat could cover 5–15% of urban district heating demand in Northern Europe under ambitious build-out and connection scenarios.
What You'll Learn
- Data Center Heat Basics: Temperatures, Loads, and Constraints
- How Integration with District Heating Actually Works
- Benchmarks: Temperatures, COP, and Cost Ranges (2026)
- Economics: CAPEX, Revenues, Payback, and CO₂ Abatement
- Case Studies: Helsinki, Copenhagen, and Montréal
- Global Perspective: Nordics vs. Continental Europe vs. North America
- Devil's Advocate: Risks, Lock-in, and Reliability Challenges
- Outlook to 2030/2035: How Big Can Heat Reuse Become?
- Step-by-Step Guide for Operators and Cities
- FAQ: Data Center Waste Heat and District Heating
Data Center Heat Basics: Temperatures, Loads, and Constraints
Data centers convert almost all consumed electricity into heat. A 20 MW IT load produces roughly 20 MW of thermal power—equivalent to heating 10,000–15,000 well-insulated European apartments. The challenge is that most legacy cooling systems reject this heat at temperatures and locations that are hard to reuse.
- Air-cooled facilities: Server exhaust air typically 30–45°C, with outdoor dry coolers rejecting heat to ambient. Direct integration into district heating usually requires a heat pump.
- Rear-door or direct-to-chip liquid cooling: Outlet temperatures of 50–60°C are increasingly common, enabling much more efficient connection to low-temperature networks.
- Load profile: Data center loads are relatively flat, which is perfect for district heating baseload but requires backup or bypass for IT redundancy and maintenance periods.
Methodology Note
Energy Solutions compiled operating data from utilities, municipal reports, and operator disclosures covering more than 35 data center heat projects in Finland, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Germany, Canada, and the US. Temperature and COP ranges are taken from measured seasonal performance factors rather than design values, and cost ranges are normalized to 2025 EUR with local inflation adjustments.
How Integration with District Heating Actually Works
At a high level, heat reuse from data centers follows four steps:
- Capture: Warm water or air from servers is collected in a secondary loop.
- Upgrade: If temperatures are too low for the district heating supply, a heat pump lifts the temperature to 60–80°C.
- Distribution: Heat is injected into the district heating network, either at a local substation or via a dedicated branch.
- Control and metering: Heat meters, flow controls, and contractual arrangements govern how much heat is delivered and paid for.
Modern low-temperature networks (4th and 5th generation district heating) are designed specifically for such sources, often operating with 55–65°C supply and 25–35°C return. Traditional high-temperature systems (80–110°C) can still use data center heat but typically require higher lift and therefore lower system COP.
Benchmarks: Temperatures, COP, and Cost Ranges (2026)
Typical Performance Benchmarks for Data Center Heat Reuse (2026)
| Configuration | Supply / Return to DH | Seasonal COP (heat pump) | Delivered Heat Cost to Utility (EUR/MWh) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Air-cooled DC + central heat pump | 70 / 40°C | 2.5–3.5 | 22–30 |
| Liquid-cooled DC, low-temp network | 60 / 30°C | 3.5–5.0 | 12–22 |
| Hybrid: DC + river or sewage-source HP | 70 / 40°C | 3.0–4.0 | 18–26 |
| Traditional gas boiler benchmark | 80 / 50°C | n/a | 35–55 |
Ranges based on projects in Helsinki, Stockholm, Copenhagen, Hamburg, and Montréal (2021–2025), normalized for fuel and power prices.
Delivered Heat Cost Comparison (EUR/MWh)
Typical Heat Supply Mix in a Decarbonizing District (2030 Scenario)
Economics: CAPEX, Revenues, Payback, and CO₂ Abatement
Economics depend on three levers: distance to the nearest main, temperature levels (and thus COP), and contract structure. Capital costs can be split into data center-side investments and district heating-side investments.
Illustrative 20 MW IT Load Project Economics (Northern Europe)
| Item | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Average IT load | 20 MW | ~175 GWh/year electricity |
| Exported heat (usable) | 120–140 GWh/year | Assumes 70–80% export after losses and redundancy |
| Data center-side CAPEX | EUR 8–14 million | Heat exchangers, piping, controls, partial cooler downsizing |
| District heating-side CAPEX | EUR 12–20 million | Heat pumps, substation, network connection |
| Heat payment to DC operator | 3–7 EUR/MWh | Volume-based with availability clauses |
| Annual DC revenue | EUR 0.4–0.9 million | Plus avoided cooling OPEX of ~0.3–0.6 million |
| CO₂ abatement | 12–25 ktCO₂/year | Versus gas boilers at 200–230 kgCO₂/MWh |
Cumulative Heat Revenue vs. CAPEX (Illustrative, 15 Years)
Energy Solutions Insight
Our analysis of 20+ operating projects shows that when data centers are within 1–2 km of an existing district heating main, simple payback for heat network investments often falls below 8–10 years—and can be shorter where carbon prices or fuel taxes on gas are high. The economics deteriorate quickly beyond 3–4 km unless heat density is exceptional.
Practical Tool: Waste Heat Recovery Calculator
For first-pass sizing of potential heat exports from planned or existing data centers, you can use our interactive Waste Heat Recovery Calculator. It helps estimate recoverable MWh, indicative CAPEX ranges, and simple payback for heat reuse concepts.
Case Studies: Helsinki, Copenhagen, and Montréal
Case Study: Underground Data Center, Helsinki
Context
- Location: Helsinki, Finland
- Facility Type: Underground data center connected to municipal DH
- System Size: ~10 MW IT load
- Installation Date: First phase commissioned 2018, expanded 2023
Investment
- Total CAPEX (heat integration only): ~EUR 10 million
- Unit Cost: ~EUR 500 per kW of exported heat
- Financing: Joint venture between utility and data center operator
Results (Recent Year)
- Exported Heat: ~50 GWh/year to Helsinki district heating
- CO₂ Reduction: ~9–11 ktCO₂/year vs. gas-fired peak boilers
- Simple Payback: estimated 8–9 years for heat-side investments
- Other Benefits: High public acceptance and strong ESG story for colocation customers
Lessons Learned
Locating the facility close to dense urban loads minimized pipe runs and avoided expensive road works. However, integrating underground infrastructure with existing tunnels required careful fire and redundancy planning.
Case Study: Cloud Region Data Center Cluster, Copenhagen
Context
- Location: Greater Copenhagen, Denmark
- Facility Type: Hyperscale cluster with central heat pump station
- System Size: ~30 MW IT load across several buildings
- Installation Date: Heat export fully operational from 2024
Investment
- Total CAPEX (network + heat pumps): ~EUR 45 million
- Unit Cost: ~EUR 320 per kW of connected heat
- Financing: Public utility with green bonds; data center pays for on-site modifications
Results (First Full Year)
- Exported Heat: ~180 GWh/year
- DH Heat Price: ~18–22 EUR/MWh from data centers (levelized)
- CO₂ Reduction: ~30 ktCO₂/year compared with marginal gas boilers
- Other Benefits: Helps utility hit 2030 fossil-free district heating targets
Lessons Learned
Clustering several facilities into a single heat pump plant created economies of scale and allowed higher redundancy than separate installations. However, coordination of construction schedules across data center owners required strong governance.
Case Study: Montréal Campus with Campus District Heating
Context
- Location: Montréal, Canada
- Facility Type: Data center connected to a mixed-use campus heating loop
- System Size: 8 MW IT load
- Installation Date: 2022
Investment
- Total CAPEX: ~CAD 14 million (heat pumps + piping)
- Unit Cost: ~CAD 450 per kW of heat
- Financing: Private owner with provincial incentives for electrification
Results (Recent Winter Season)
- Heat Coverage: 60–70% of campus heating demand met by data center heat
- Operating COP: 3.5–4.2 across the season
- CO₂ Reduction: ~4–6 ktCO₂/year vs. legacy steam boilers
- Other Benefits: IT customers can credibly claim lower Scope 2 and partial Scope 3 emissions.
Lessons Learned
A campus-scale network is easier to coordinate than a city-wide system, making this a good entry point for North American operators considering waste heat projects.
Global Perspective: Nordics vs. Continental Europe vs. North America
Nordic Countries
- Policy: High carbon and fuel taxes on fossil heating, strong municipal roles in energy planning.
- Infrastructure: Extensive district heating coverage in major cities, often low-temperature ready.
- Adoption: Dozens of operating projects; waste heat is treated as a mainstream supply option rather than a pilot curiosity.
Continental Europe
- Policy: EU-wide pressure to decarbonize heating, but district heating penetration varies significantly by country.
- Infrastructure: Large high-temperature networks in Central and Eastern Europe that need gradual conversion to lower temperatures.
- Adoption: Growing pipeline of projects in Germany, the Netherlands, and Austria; many still in early stages of contractual negotiation.
North America
- Policy: Federal incentives for heat pumps and electrification, but little direct policy push for district heating outside a few cities and campuses.
- Infrastructure: Limited district heating coverage; many opportunities tied to university campuses, hospitals, or new urban developments.
- Adoption: A handful of operating projects and a growing list of feasibility studies, especially in Canada and the US Northeast.
Devil's Advocate: Risks, Lock-in, and Reliability Challenges
Technical Barriers
- Temperature dependency: If IT loads or cooling technologies change, outlet temperatures may fall, undermining heat pump efficiency.
- Redundancy: Data centers must prioritize uptime; heat customers cannot compromise cooling redundancy just to capture more heat.
- Hydraulic complexity: Integrating variable data center heat with existing district heating hydraulics can be challenging.
Economic Constraints
- Distance to loads: Network extensions are capital intensive; beyond a few kilometers, economics deteriorate unless demand density is very high.
- Price volatility: Heat price formulas indexed to gas or power prices can be volatile, complicating financing.
- Opportunity cost: Some operators may prioritize simpler on-site free cooling where land is cheap and climate is cold.
Policy and Regulatory Risks
- Planning timelines: City planning and permitting can lag behind data center rollout schedules by several years.
- State aid and tariff rules: Utilities must navigate how waste heat is priced within regulated tariff structures.
- Data sovereignty and location debates: Shifts in data localization rules may move capacity away from cities with the best heat demand.
When NOT to Adopt
Isolated data centers in low-density industrial parks with no realistic prospect of a heat network within 3–5 km are unlikely to justify large heat reuse investments today. In such cases, high-efficiency air-side economization and targeted on-site uses (e.g., small greenhouses or process heat) may be more rational.
Outlook to 2030/2035: How Big Can Heat Reuse Become?
Illustrative District Heating Supply Mix Scenarios (Selected Cities)
| City Type | Data Center Heat Share in 2030 | Data Center Heat Share in 2035 |
|---|---|---|
| Large Nordic capital | 5–8% | 10–15% |
| Central European city with growing DC cluster | 2–5% | 6–10% |
| North American campus district | 10–20% | 15–25% |
These ranges assume that operators connect new data centers wherever practical and that district heating operators progressively lower network temperatures. In an aggressive policy scenario with strong carbon pricing and targeted planning rules, shares at the upper end of these ranges appear achievable.
Step-by-Step Guide for Operators and Cities
1. Screen Sites for Heat Reuse Potential
- Map distance from existing or planned district heating mains and major campus loads.
- Characterize IT load profiles and cooling technologies (air vs. liquid).
- Identify temperature levels today and under plausible future cooling upgrades.
2. Build a Joint Techno-Economic Model
- Quantify annual exportable heat volumes under realistic redundancy and outage assumptions.
- Model alternative configurations: different heat pump sizes, network connection points, and operating strategies.
- Include avoided CAPEX/OPEX on the data center side (cooling downsizing, reduced fan energy).
3. Structure Bankable Contracts
- Define availability guarantees, compensation for curtailment, and maintenance responsibilities.
- Use price formulas that share risk between electricity and gas price movements.
- Align contract duration (often 10–20 years) with data center lease and power purchase agreements.
4. Pilot, Monitor, and Iterate
- Start with a single building or partial load, then scale as performance data is collected.
- Instrument the system heavily—temperature, flow, COP, and reliability metrics.
- Use insights to refine future designs, such as moving to higher-temperature liquid cooling over time.
5. Embed Heat Reuse into Siting Strategy
- Incorporate heat network proximity and load density as explicit criteria in new site selection.
- Work with cities early so that zoning and infrastructure plans anticipate future data center clusters.
- Integrate waste heat considerations with broader decarbonization levers, including renewable PPAs and on-site storage.
FAQ: Data Center Waste Heat and District Heating
Frequently Asked Questions
1. How much of a data center's electricity use can realistically be recovered as useful heat?
Once auxiliary losses and downtime are accounted for, well-designed systems can export roughly 70–90% of IT electricity as usable heat to district heating networks. The exact figure depends on cooling technology, redundancy levels, and how often heat pumps or backup coolers bypass the network.
2. What temperatures do district heating networks need from data centers?
Most modern low-temperature networks operate with 55–75°C supply temperatures. Air-cooled data centers often need heat pumps to reach these levels, while liquid-cooled systems with 50–60°C outlet water reduce the lift and improve efficiency. Legacy high-temperature networks may require higher lift or blending with other heat sources.
3. Are heat reuse projects financially attractive for data center operators?
On their own, heat offtake payments rarely transform project economics, but they typically add a few percent to EBITDA and support corporate decarbonization targets. The strongest business cases combine direct heat revenues with avoided cooling CAPEX and OPEX, and occasionally with incentives for CO₂ reductions.
4. How do utilities price heat from data centers?
Common structures include per-MWh payments indexed to fuel or wholesale heat prices, with availability requirements and penalty clauses. Some utilities treat data center heat like a firm baseload source, while others view it as opportunistic and price it accordingly.
5. Does using waste heat expose data centers to additional reliability risks?
Properly designed systems maintain independent cooling capability, so district heating failures do not compromise IT uptime. Redundant heat exchangers, bypass lines, and backup coolers are standard practice in mature projects.
6. How large can the contribution of data center heat be in a city?
In cities with both dense district heating networks and significant data center capacity, waste heat could plausibly supply 10–15% of annual heat demand by the mid-2030s. In most other locations, shares will be smaller and focused on specific districts or campuses.
7. Is this only relevant in cold climates?
Cold climates with long heating seasons naturally offer the strongest economics. However, even in milder climates, data centers can supply domestic hot water and shoulder-season heating, especially where gas prices or carbon prices are high.
8. How should cities prioritize between data center heat and other low-carbon heat sources?
Cities typically pursue a portfolio: large-scale heat pumps on rivers or sewage, industrial waste heat, geothermal, and data center heat all play roles. The priority should be to match the right technology to local conditions and to integrate them in a way that maximizes emissions reductions per euro invested.